Writing

Words we use for words

I am not a linguist (a person who studies languages).

But during my English lessons, my students and I often discuss what “kind” of English they want to learn. Colloquial? Informal? Idiomatic? Slang? Dialect? What do all those terms actually mean?

In this article, I will try to explain what we English teachers mean when we throw these terms around. As I said, I’m not a linguist, so please take my information “with a grain of salt.”

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Register. Basically, linguists use register to define a language’s degree of formality. In academic writing and social situations such as job interviews and committee meetings, people tend to use formal register: higher-level vocabulary words and less slang, with more attention to proper grammar and precise wording. On the other hand, casual or informal register is more conversational, more colloquial, more idiomatic, and more “natural.” In general, English writing is more formal in register, speaking is less so. But for both, there’s still lots of variation between formal and casual register, and English learners need to pay attention to identifying which people and situations require what degree of register.

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Vernacular. This is a broad, rather “catch-all” phrase used to describe “the language of a people or a national language.” The term can also be used as a synonym for colloquial or informal. It includes both spoken and written English.

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Colloquialism. Colloquial. In contrast to formal language, colloquialism (general parlance) is simply the everyday language people use when they are casual, relaxed, and not trying to impress people. This general term includes slang, abbreviations (like LOL), and idioms. When English learners want to sound “real,” native-like, and authentic, they want to learn this kind of English. Colloquialism is more common in spoken English, although written texts that try to replicate human speech often use colloquial expressions. Colloquial language can generally be understood by people of different ages and socioeconomic classes in a broad geographical area, but some expressions are more limited.

For example, many Americans, when they tell someone that they’re going out for a drink with a friend, might say, “We’re gonna go grab a …” “Gonna” is a widely used colloquialism for “going to.” Your English textbook may tell you that Americans say, “I am going to walk to the store.” In fact, nine times out of ten, you will hear them say, “I’m gonna walk to the store.’  And although “to grab” generally means to catch or seize something, Americans will understand that this simply means to go get something right away, and relatively quickly. However, in different regions, the name for that drink may vary. For example, in the Northeast, people usually say a “soda,” in the South, a “Coke” (even when the drink is a different brand), and in the Midwest, a “pop.” So, there are colloquialisms that are more generally used throughout the US, and others that are more regional.

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Idiom. Idiomatic. I have already written two articles on idioms so I won’t repeat myself too much here; my general definition is:

  • They are a group (or pair) of words in a specific order that doesn’t change. The speaker will include the idiom as one fixed “chunk” of language into their speech or text.
  • Their meaning is different from the individual words that form the phrase. In other words, you won’t be able to figure out the meaning of the idiom from the meaning of the individual words.
  • They are usually specific to a certain language and can’t be translated word-by-word to another language.

While colloquialisms include any informal, everyday expressions, idioms are limited to those phrases that are both fixed and figurative. Most idioms are colloquial; we wouldn’t use them in formal speech, but not all colloquial language is idiomatic

Remember … fixed and figurative. The word order will generally stay the same, and a literal (word-for-word) meaning won’t help you catch the meaning, although it can result in some funny images. If your children are “glued to the TV set,” they aren’t (fortunately!) literally and physically attached to the screen. If you take my advice with “a grain of salt,” you aren’t going to be eating salt … you’re just going to be a little skeptical. If you’re “beating a dead horse,” you’re not committing animal cruelty … you’re simply wasting your time on something that’s already over and done with.

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Slang. Slang is casual spoken language that’s very informal. While colloquialisms can be understood by most Americans, slang is specific to a particular group, age, region, or profession. Slang can become a group identity … so that if you know the slang, you “belong” to the group; if not, you’re an outsider. Slang generally goes in and out of fashion. Words like groovy and sweet (to describe something pleasing) now seem very outdated. Some slang expressions are perfectly acceptable in any conversation (cool or brilliant or yikes). Others are more vulgar (offensive and rude) and should be used with caution! Urban Dictionary is a wonderful resource for learning American slang (but it’s definitely X-rated, so readers beware!).

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Jargon. Jargon is a language that’s specific to a particular activity or profession. Lawyers use legal jargon (appeal, motion, bench); golfers use golf jargon (birdie, boogey, par).

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Dialect. Dialect is a particular form of a language spoken by a certain group of people, such as southern English, Black English, even standard English. When it’s in the form of writing that shows the accent and way people talk in a particular region, dialect can be a huge obstacle for readers of English literature. Here are some examples:

Dialect in Huckleberry Finn (Mark Twain):

Jim (a Black man in what the author describes as “Missouri negro dialect”): I didn’ know dey was so many un um. I hain’t hearn ‘bout non un um, skasely, but old Sollermun, onless you counts dem kings dat’s in a pack er k’yards. How much do a king git?

In Standard American English: I didn’t know there were so many of them. I have scarcely heard of any of them, except old Solomon, unless you count the kings that are in a pack of cards. How much does a king earn?

Dialect in The Secret Garden (Frances Hodgson Burnett):

Dickon (a country boy in Yorkshire, England): It’s rare good for thee. There’s naught as nice as th’ smell o’ fresh growin’ things when th’ rain falls on ‘em. I get out on th’ moor many a day when it’s rainin’ an’ I lie under a bush an’ listen to th’ soft swish o’ drops on th’ heather an’ I just sniff an’ sniff … I never ketched cold since I was born. I wasn’t brought up nesh enough.

In Standard American English: It’s really good for you. There’s nothing as nice as the smell of freshly growing things when the rain falls on them. I get out on the moor many days when it’s raining and lie under a bush and listen to the soft swish of drops on the heather and I just sniff and sniff … I’ve never caught a cold since I was born. I wasn’t brought up nicely enough.

Although literature written in dialect closely mirrors the speech patterns of the characters and thus makes them sound more genuine, it can be exceedingly difficult for even native English speakers to read. In the same way, a movie in which actors speak dialect can be almost inaccessible. If this happens to you, try not to feel frustrated! Many American high schoolers have given up (or wanted to) on Huckleberry Finn, even though it’s considered a classic in American literature.

 

Building a five-paragraph essay

The “classic” five-paragraph essay consists of several parts: the introduction, three body paragraphs, and the conclusion. This format should be used in the TOEFL independent essay as I describe in this article. Although your academic work will probably be longer than five paragraphs, essays like this give you excellent practice in organizing your ideas and perfecting your writing style. Think of them as the scales that pianists run through many times before tackling a more challenging piece of music.

You might think of your essay as a classic Roman construction … like this facade of the Temple of Castor and Pollux in Rome, Italy. Given that it was built over 2,500 years ago, it certainly has a solid structure! Your essay should have the same.

Let’s discuss the elements in your well-built essay and then we’ll look at more specific details on its construction in the following article [to be written].

First, you need a solid foundation.

Your introduction lays the foundation of your essay. And to set a foundation, you must have, at the very center, a thesis. The thesis sums up your central idea; everything built on top of it, your three body paragraphs and your conclusion, must rest on it, must be attached and connected.

One of the biggest problems my writing students encounter stems from not beginning with this foundation stone. They begin writing their essay with a vague idea of what they’re going to say, and jump from point to point so that nothing connects to a center. If your essay structure is not built solidly on a central thesis, the essay will fall apart. It will lack coherence and cohesion, which are essential to a good essay.

When I read essays like this, I ask my students to tell me what their thesis is. In one sentence, what is this essay saying? If they can’t do this, then we know that there’s a problem with the thesis; and with a shaky, wobbly foundation, it can never stand on its own.

Let’s also consider what your foundation looks like to the outsider, the reader. Is it inviting … does the reader want to enter your essay and see what’s inside? Or is the foundation boring, overly general, uninviting? An attractive “hook” to interest the reader and a clearly stated thesis statement are like a set of wide, shallow stairs that help usher the reader into your essay.

Next, you need three strong columns in the form of three body paragraphs. Each column rests on the foundation, your thesis. If a column is resting outside the foundation, dangling in space so to speak, the essay is going to fall apart or, at the very least, seem unbalanced and poorly constructed.

Although your columns, your paragraphs, aren’t going to look exactly the same … each will be expressing a different point … they should have a sense of being coordinated and similar. For example, you won’t have one paragraph twice as big as the other two. You won’t start two paragraphs with a topic sentence, and then end the third with the topic sentence. Your three body paragraphs, like three visually pleasing columns, will give your reader a sense of logical order and well-planned structure.

Finally, you cap off your essay with a conclusion. Notice that the Temple of Castor and Pollux has a rather ornate top that embellishes the whole construction. Your conclusion doesn’t need to be so fancy! You mainly need to focus on constructing a conclusion that reflects the ideas and style of the introduction. Just like you wouldn’t place a thatched roof on top of a Roman temple, you don’t want a conclusion that introduces completely new elements or distracts from the rest of the essay. Like the foundation, the roof should be well connected to the three columns. The ideas expressed in your conclusion should rest solidly on the material in your three body paragraphs.

In the next article, we’ll discuss some ways to build a real five-paragraph essay, putting all these elements into practice.

Using reporting verbs

In my previous article on reporting verbs, I discussed a number of different verbs that you can use to describe what something or someone says or thinks.

Now I’d like to talk about the grammar you should use for reporting verbs.

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There are two basic models used with reporting verbs. Some reporting verbs follow one model, some reporting verbs follow another, and some can follow both.

The first model is verb + noun (or noun phrase). For example:

The author affirms the existence of life on the sea floor.

The text discusses the possibility of life on Mars.

The lecturer proposes alternative theories to those stated in the text.

The second model is verb + that + clause (subject/verb)

The author observes that many animals have evolved to adapt to the extreme environment.

The text states that no life could exist on Mars.

The lecturer suggests that other theories might better explain this phenomenon.

As a writer, you will need to know whether each reporting verb you use follows the first model, the second model, or both.

First model only:

The author refutes the theory that life exists on Mars.

NEVER:   The author refutes that life exists on Mars.

Second model only:

The lecturer concludes that several theories are equally valid.

NEVER:   The lecturer concludes the equal validity of several theories.

Fortunately, most reporting verbs can follow both models:

First model:  The researchers acknowledge the lack of convincing data yielded by recent studies.

Second model:  The researchers acknowledge that recent studies have yielded little convincing data.

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The second issue regards tense. For relatively simple tasks like the TOEFL integrated essay, I would ALWAYS recommend using the simple present tense for your reporting verbs. This is especially true if the reporting verb is followed by a clause describing something that happened in the past.

For example, this is a relatively easy sentence to write with the reporting verbs in the simple present tense. Note the verbs in the subsequent clauses.

The professor points out that the use of toxic chemicals in the 1960s damaged vegetation and caused many animal species to disappear. She notes that many fertilizers were used without knowledge of their harmful effects.

But if we put the reporting verbs in the simple past tense and want to stay consistent in our use of tense in the subsequent clauses, we have to write:

The professor pointed out that the use of toxic chemicals in the 1960s had damaged vegetation and had caused many animal species to disappear. She noted that many fertilizers had been used without knowledge of their harmful effects.

Or in another example:

Simple present: The professor states that the fire gave new opportunities for small animals and actually strengthened the food chain.

Simple past: The professor stated that the fire had given new opportunities for small animals and had actually strengthened the food chain.

Finally, if you are stating general facts and not referring to previous events or situations, I suggest you keep everything in the simple present tense.

The professor rejects the belief that dogs are more intelligent than cats. She points out that most research studies are deeply flawed.  Pointing out that cats are more independent and less willing to please than dogs, she believes that cats are equally capable of performing tasks that researchers present to them.

Two languages

This may be a discouraging thought but the fact is, when you learn English (or most other languages), you’re dealing with not one but two languages … spoken English and written English.

In his lectures on the history of human language, Professor John McWhorter points out a couple of striking differences between spoken and written English:

  • Spoken English uses a much more limited vocabulary than written English. First, there are the “big” words that you are likely to encounter only in written English, and often in more formal or academic writing. Even native English speakers may have to look these up in a dictionary: words like adumbrate, derisory, and hyperbolic. English speakers will rarely use these in speech and, if they do, they will tend to sound a bit pretentious (like they’re trying to show off and impress people). But spoken English also limits more ordinary words; for example, we are likely to use a lot of rather than numerous, a great many, or a multitude of.
  • Spoken English has no punctuation. In spoken English, we don’t worry about whether we’re using complete or incomplete sentences; there are, in fact, no sentences. Instead, English speakers tend to put together “word packets” that, if written down, would not necessarily follow the rules of syntax that are expected in written English. Spoken English also uses shorter and simpler structures than written English. Professor McWhorter gives an example of this in a transcription of an academic conversation:

On a tree. Carbon isn’t going to do much for a tree really. Really. The only thing it can do is collect moisture. Which may be good for it. In other words in the desert you have the carbon granules which would absorb, collect moisture on top of them. Yeah. It doesn’t help the tree but it protects, keeps the moisture in. Uh huh. Because then it just soaks up moisture. It works by the water molecules adhere to the carbon moleh, molecules that are in the ashes. It holds it on. And the plant takes it away from there.

I have students who prepare for tests of speaking ability by writing down transcripts of what they want to say. But this hardly ever sounds natural. Here’s an example of a prepared, written response to a typical TOEFL question compared to a natural, spoken one:

Question: Some students prefer to work on class assignments by themselves. Others believe it is better to work in a group. Which do you prefer? Explain why.

“Prepared” written response:

Considering various aspects of this situation, I believe that it’s preferable for me to work on class assignments by myself. This is due to the fact that I’m a fairly solitary individual who profits more by working in isolation and by concentrating and focusing more fully and deeply on my assignments. As a true introvert, I feel more anxious and apprehensive when I have to interact with my peer group. Therefore, I believe that engaging in various academic tasks by myself results in a better performance and hence higher grades.

Natural spoken response:

Well, I guess I’d rather work by myself on my class assignments. I don’t know … I guess I’m kind of an introvert … I’m used to working by myself … you know, I listen to music and sort of tune out what’s going on around me and … actually, I get a lot of work done that way. You know, when I’m in a group, I get kinda stressed out … like, I’m more worried about saying something stupid or what people think about my clothes, or whatever … and seriously, my grades are actually better when I just do the work by myself.

What does this mean for you as an English learner?

Think about how you’re going to be using English in the future.

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If you are more interested in conversing with English speakers and listening to shows, movies, and lectures in English, then focus on spoken English.

  • Listen to as much “natural” English as you can. Flood yourself with English! I suggest some good listening resources in this article. My experience from learning French this way is that when you concentrate on understanding as much as you can and focus on “noticing” certain structures, phrases, and words, you eventually absorb them, make them “your own,” and use them in your own speaking.
  • Remember that even academic lectures and news broadcasts are still delivered in spoken English. The speakers may use less slang and colloquialisms like I’m gonna or you hafta, but their vocabulary will still be more limited and their structures will be simpler.
  • Rely less on textbooks, and more on “authentic” English – the way it’s spoken in real life. Even the best textbooks tend to provide conversations which sound unnatural and “written.” For example, in one textbook I read the following:

A: What about you? What did you do on Saturday?

B: I did not do anything special. I stayed home and worked around the house. Oh, but I saw a really good movie on TV. And then I made dinner with my mother.

In “real life,” the conversation would probably sound more like this:

A. Whadda ’bout y’all? How’d your Saturday go?

B. Ah, nuthin’ to write home about. Mostly just hung out. Got some stuff done around the house, I guess … and oh yeah, I streamed an awesome chick flick. Plus me and mom fixed something for dinner.

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If you want to study in an English-speaking country, reading academic texts and submitting essays, reports, or papers, or to work in an international company where you’ll be communicating in writing with English-speaking colleagues, then you’ll need to work on both spoken and written English skills.

  • Good English writing is an art. Mastering this art requires years, not months or weeks. As a case in point, the law school where my husband teaches employs two full-time writing instructors for 400 students — almost all of whom are native-English-speaking, American college graduates.
  • Just as lots of attentive, focused listening helps develop speaking skills, so lots of reading helps develop writing skills. What should you read? One good rule of thumb is to focus on reading material that you need to write. If you need to write engineering reports, read engineering reports. If you need to write general academic essays, read general academic essays. When in doubt, just keep reading. A great textbook that integrates academic reading and writing is From Inquiry to Academic Writing by Greene & Lidinsky.
  • Grammar and syntax, as well as vocabulary, are more important in written English, so you’ll need to focus more on these areas. There are a million and one English grammar books. I prefer Cambridge grammar for British English and the Azar series for American English, but you will find plenty of teachers who prefer others 🙂 My favorite online website for studying grammar is Teacher Paul’s Learn American English Online.
  • There are many, many books about becoming a better writer of English. Here are a few different articles listing some “best books about writing.”

10 Books to Help You Polish Your Writing & English Skills

Three Books That Will Immediately Improve Your Writing (Forbes Magazine)

The Best Books for Improving Academic Writing

My personal favorites are The Elements of Style by Strunk & White and The Sense of Style by Steven Pinker.

I also recommend the Purdue OWL Online Writing Lab for lots of practical advice on issues like citations, formatting, subject-specific writing, applications to college and graduate school, etc.

 

 

 

Three points, not three reasons

It’s time to write the TOEFL independent essay. Last section of the test … I’m almost done! I take a deep breath, look at the question, and …. blank out! What in the world can I say? I don’t have any ideas!

This is a common complaint of my students. And with only 30 minutes to complete the entire essay, you simply can’t waste time struggling to come up with ideas.

I advise my students to think about generating three points about the topic. Although the topic is usually an opinion question, that doesn’t mean that you have to come up with three reasons to agree or disagree with a given idea or to choose one option over another.

Remember that in real life, it’s very unlikely that we’ll feel 100% one way or the other. If someone asks us whether we liked a particular movie, we may say that we liked the plot, or the scenery, or a certain actor, but that we didn’t like something else, maybe the ending, the music, or the special effects.

My article on “it depends” approaches offers a variety of ways to answer opinion questions. In this article, I want to expand on that idea, and stress that you only need to come up with three points.

They don’t have to be profound.

They don’t have to be complex.

They don’t have to be especially intelligent.

Actually, the simpler they are, the better.

They just need to relate to the topic.

You should provide a few details to support each point.

And you should arrange them in a coherent order.

Let’s see how this can be done with some real-life topics.

I’ll be using two independent writing questions (TPOs 48 and 49). What points can I quickly come up with to answer these questions, and how can I elaborate on them?

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Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?

The ability to maintain friendships with a small number of people over a long period of time is more important for happiness than the ability to make many new friends easily.

The best place to start is always, always, always with your own personal experiences, opinions, and ideas. When you talk about what you think or know to be true, or about what has been true for you, your essay will sound authentic and genuine. It will express your unique voice. You will have more ideas, because the ideas are already there in your head.

So, immediately, I start thinking about friendships that I have. I quickly realize that I have a mix of both kinds of friends, and that they both offer different benefits and play different roles in my life, as I suspect they do in everyone else’s lives. A little tune I learned as a child comes into my head and … I’m off!

I quickly jot down my points as follows:

Now, here’s my essay which, as you can see, does not contain three reasons for agreeing or disagreeing with the statement but nonetheless fully addresses the topic.

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My Essay

When I think about friendships, the words to a little song I learned as a Brownie Girl Scout come to mind: Make new friends, but keep the old; one is silver and the other, gold. Although a bit simplistic, I believe these lyrics truly reflect a wise and balanced approach to friendship.

Having the ability to make lots of friends quickly and easily can certainly provide us with advantages in many different settings. For example, university students engaged in a group project may not know their team members to begin with, but quickly establishing a sense of friendship and rapport can help the group to work more effectively. Business people who can strike up friendships at a work conference may find these connections valuable during a later job search. Even while traveling, making friends with some local residents can give tourists insights into the culture of the place they are visiting. Thus, although introverts might find it a challenge, easily making new friends definitely provides some pluses.

Maintaining deeper friendships also offers advantages. With our old friends, we can revisit long-lost memories … places and people that we might otherwise forget. Our long-time friends really KNOW us, inside and out; we can be honest and open about our challenges and struggles. For this reason, when we are suffering physically or emotionally, these are the friends we are more likely to turn to. However, in today’s mobile society, many of us have trouble maintaining these ties as we move from place to place, even country to country.

Because both types of friendships provide important benefits, I believe that the best strategy is to find a balance of both kinds. We should definitely make the effort to maintain long-term friendships whenever possible. In these days of email and social media, distance should not necessarily present an insurmountable obstacle to staying in touch. On the other hand, we should also overcome any natural shyness and work hard to make connections with those we encounter in everyday life … from our workplace to our gym, from our place of worship to our neighborhood.

As I learned when I was a Brownie Scout, old friendships are golden. Nothing can ever replace those friends who are there for us no matter what the circumstances. But “silver” friends, the ones who pass through our life more easily, are still valuable and make the world a happier place for us all.

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Now let’s proceed to the second question.

Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?

Because modern life is very complex, it is essential for young people to have the ability to plan and organize.

Again, three points pop fairly quickly into my mind. Based on my own experience, I know that everyone, not just young people, benefits from organization. But thinking about my own children, I also know that young people face particular challenges. However, I also believe that people should take time to relax.

Here are my notes:

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My Essay

When I consider the number of half-used planners, checklists, and to-do lists cluttering my house, I realize that although I’m certainly not young, I definitely want and need to organize my life. And although young people, like older adults, have specific needs and goals to plan for, it’s also important that everyone takes some time to relax and live spontaneously as well.

Compared to a hundred years ago, modern life is indeed complex and fast-paced. With agendas filled with appointments, emails bombarding us constantly, and work hours that stretch from sunrise to sunset, just about everyone needs to plan and organize. Young people will need to cultivate these skills, and it is definitely the responsibility of parents and teachers to help them succeed. From toddlers who are given simple tasks like putting away their toys to high school students with full class schedules and part-time jobs, young people must begin learning these life lessons.

In addition, young people face particular challenges that adults do not, and they need to plan and organize for these. High school students, with the help of guidance counselors, must schedule their classes to ensure a well-rounded college prep curriculum. They often need to prepare multiple college applications that require much planning and organization. And especially in the US, they may also have to juggle schoolwork with the responsibility of part-time jobs. Young people living in a simpler time and place rarely had to deal with these complex challenges.

However, whether a person is young or elderly, and no matter what their position or responsibilities, planning and organizing should not be a full-time occupation. The modern world is both complex and stressful, sometimes unhealthily so. Therefore, young people as well as adults should be encouraged to take occasional breaks when they throw their schedules to the wind and enjoy spontaneous, unplanned, unpressured FUN. Without these periodic opportunities to relax, life would become unbearably tense and unhealthy to both mind and body.

As a mother of three, I encouraged my own children to plan and organize. From household chores to applying to colleges, they honed those abilities so that they could face adult responsibilities more successfully. But we never hesitated to enjoy times when we broke free of the stress and pressure – whether to walk to the ice cream store or go to the swimming pool. Hopefully they learned that a happy, successful life in this modern world requires both planning and spontaneity.

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I hope these essays encourage you to think outside the “three reasons box” … because confining yourself to that type of response limits your ability to generate ideas and express what you really think.

 

 

 

Too … !

Too, spelled with two o’s, is a very common word in English, but one that is sometimes used incorrectly.

Using too as an adverb modifying a verb is pretty straightforward and easy. We can use it instead of also or as well.

Are you going to the movies? I’m going too.

Do you like scary movies? I like them as well.

Did you take TOEFL last week? I also took it.

Me too is frequently used to express agreement.

Speaker A: I thought that test was really hard.

Speaker B: Me too!

Using too as an adverb modifying an adjective or adverb is a bit trickier.

First of all, don’t confuse too with so. So can be used to mean really, very, or extremely.

That movie was so good! It was really amazing.

Too, on the other hand, has a negative meaning. It means to an excess.

That movie was too scary. I couldn’t even watch some of it.

That soup is too hot. I can’t drink it.

He’s driving too fast. He’s going to get stopped by the police.

She’s talking too fast. It’s hard to understand her.

We often use the phrases too much and too many. Remember that as adjectives (determiners), much is used with singular non-count nouns and many with plural nouns.

I ate too much dinner. It’s unhealthy to eat too much sugar. Those shoes cost too much money.

I had too many cookies. Fast food has too many calories. She has too many shoes.

We can also use too much as an adverb.

He slept too much. She talks too much. We have to study too much.

We can also use too much in a general, unspecific way.

Life was just too much for her. She needed a break.

Things have just been too much lately. I’m really depressed.

Way too is an informal way to intensify too.

I ate way too many chips. Our teacher gives us way too much homework. I was working way too hard.

Then, there’s too too, sometimes spelled too-too. It means going beyond the edge (over the edge, overboard) in terms of convention, acceptability, good taste, or common sense. We can use it as an adjective by itself or as an adverb modifying an adjective.

Her house is just too too. (Meaning that it might be over-decorated, too showy, too pretentious, too ornate, or over-the-top)

Her children are simply too too precious. (Depending on the tone of voice, this could mean that the speaker really thinks the children are precious (adorable, lovely, wonderful) or it could imply that although the parents think they are precious, the speaker doesn’t.)

In general, too as an adjective is a relatively weak word to use in more formal business or academic writing, so be careful not to overuse it. Good synonyms that specifically mean being to a higher degree than is desirable, permissible, or possible include:

excessively

overly

unduly

inordinately

disproportionately

What are idioms?

Almost every student I’ve had says something to the effect of, “I want to learn more idioms!” So, what exactly are idioms?

Idioms have three characteristics.

  • They are a group (or pair) of words in a specific order that doesn’t change. The speaker will include the idiom as one fixed “chunk” of language into their speech or text.
  • Their meaning is different from the individual words that form the phrase. In other words, you won’t be able to figure out the meaning of the idiom from the meaning of the individual words.
  • They are usually specific to a certain language and can’t be translated word-by-word to another language.

I’ve seen English teaching websites, even reputable ones, that confuse idioms with other types of language, such as phrasal verbs,  proverbs, or popular sayings.

For example, the following question was part of an “idiom quiz” at one website.

Why can’t you _______ this problem? It’s really not that difficult.

a.  figure out     b. get into     c. go over     d. hold on to

The correct choice is a. figure out, but “figure out” is NOT an idiom; it’s a phrasal verb. The words DON’T follow a set order, because you could just as correctly say, “Why can’t you figure this problem out?”

Proverbs and popular sayings aren’t idioms because you can usually figure out what they mean from looking at the words. Also, you can often find the exact same proverb or saying in another language.

Proverbs are “wise sayings” that offer some sort of advice or express a belief that is generally thought to be true. Often, my students tell me that they have a similar proverb, or a saying that expresses a similar idea in their own language. For example,

A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

Two wrongs don’t make a right.

A friend in need is a friend indeed.

Don’t count your chickens before they hatch.

There are other popular sayings that may not be quite so “wise” and thus, I wouldn’t exactly call them proverbs. Here are two saying that are frequently used in my family.

Finders keepers, losers weepers

I used this today when my son found a $10 bill outside on the curb. Since it would be impossible to find the owner (the loser of the money), my son can keep the money. It’s not a “wise” saying, because in many cases, a person could in fact, with a bit of effort, find the loser of the item, and that would be the right thing to do.

You snooze, you lose

There are four coffee drinkers in my family and one 12-cup coffee pot. So the last person up in the morning (the snoozer) ends up having to make another pot of coffee. This saying doesn’t apply just to literal sleep … it basically means you need to pay attention or you may miss a good opportunity.

Now that we know what idioms are NOT, what are some examples of common English idioms? Here are just a few of the many hundreds that we use all the time.

Keep talking … I’m all ears.

It’s time to call it a day … we’ll work on this project tomorrow.

That party was so much fun … we all had a blast.

That test was a piece of cake … I’m sure I got an A.

He’s such a couch potato … as soon as he gets home, he just grabs a snack and watches Netflix for hours.

Because there are so many idiomatic expressions in English, the task of learning them might seem almost impossible. I’ll give you some advice about that in the next article.

Improving your writing on your own

When you’re on your own, you can quite effectively improve your receptive language skills like reading and listening as well as your grammar and vocabulary. But what about productive skills like writing and speaking? These skills require you to produce something … text or speech … yet how do you evaluate and improve these abilities all by yourself?

This article has some suggestions for improving speaking fluency. Now I’d like to discuss improving your writing.

Most of my students are preparing for TOEFL iBT Writing so let’s talk about that. (Many of these tips, however, can be applied to any sort of writing.)

What can you do, on your own, to improve your writing and get a higher score? In my opinion, just writing essay after essay is definitely not the only and probably not the most effective way to achieve this goal.

Improve your typing

This would seem obvious, but being a slow typist is really going to hurt you when time is of the essence.

I was lucky, because my mother forced my brother and me to take a typing class one summer many years ago. Like riding a bike or swimming, once you learn to type quickly and accurately, it’s a skill you never lose.

First, test your current typing speed. I Googled “typing speed test” and found lots of hits. At this website, I took a three-minute test and tested at 64 WPM (words per minute) with 98% accuracy. Both speed AND accuracy are going to be important on TOEFL Writing. You want to get your ideas down as quickly as possible. And because your rater won’t be able to distinguish between typos and spelling/grammar mistakes, you also want to type accurately. Furthermore, you won’t have that handy spell check and autocorrect to help you!

What is a good typing speed to aim for? According to Mr. Google, 40 WPM is average; anything above that is better. The website mentioned above along with many others offer lessons that can help you to improve your speed. And the satisfying thing about working on your typing skills is that improvement is easily measured and usually happens fairly quickly.

Brainstorm ideas

Many of my students struggle coming up quickly with three main points for the TOEFL independent essay. Yet I find that I can usually generate multiple ideas within a minute or two. Therefore, I think it’s safe to say that this is a skill that can be improved with practice.

Instead of writing a whole independent essay, just brainstorm the topic and see how many different ideas you can generate quickly. Try using both the 100% and 50/50 strategies. Find various topics in TPOs (TOEFL Practice Online) or TOEFL study guides.

Let’s take this topic (TPO 50) as an example:

Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? 

All university students should be required to take history courses no matter what their field of study is. 

Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.

So I could first try generating at least three points that are 100% for or 100% against. Try to think of a minimum of three, but keep going if you can … when you’re actually writing the essay, being able to choose the best three, and not the only three will be a great help. The three you choose should be the points that you can support the most effectively and quickly.

In favor of requiring history courses:

  1. Knowledge of your country’s history makes you a better citizen.
  2. Greater knowledge of history can make you appear more intelligent.
  3. Knowledge of world history helps you if you need to interact with other nationalities.
  4. Studying history requires good reading and analytical skills that help in lots of different fields.
  5. Studying history helps you understand and appreciate literature and art better.
  6. The best universities offer a liberal arts education which requires studying history as well as other fields like literature and social sciences.

Against requiring history courses:

  1. Most high schools teach enough history to cover the necessities.
  2. Required history classes would create too much work for university students who are already busy enough.
  3. History is not relevant to some fields like engineering and computer science.
  4. Students can learn history on their own by reading books.
  5. History professors may be biased and even provide students with misinformation.
  6. History is not relevant to our society today; it’s the future that matters.

Next you could generate ideas for a 50/50 strategy, meaning that whether students should be required to take history depends on factors such as:

  1. The type of university (liberal arts colleges usually require history; specialized schools like engineering colleges may not)
  2. The depth/quality of history instruction in high school (if instruction is good in high school, then not necessary in university)
  3. The availability of qualified history professors (does the university have enough professors to teach all students?)
  4. The quality of instruction in history at the university (are the history professors good, unbiased, well-trained?)
  5. The relevance of history to their field of study (not relevant for computer science, might be relevant for business majors who want to work abroad)
  6. Type of history taught (world history not important; history of country is)

Each point that you generate would be used as the main idea of a paragraph and would be presented in the topic sentence of that paragraph. But in addition, you should also practice brainstorming ideas to support each of these points. These ideas would be the supporting details included in the rest of that paragraph. For example, let’s take the very first point:

  1. Knowledge of your country’s history makes you a better citizen.

You could quickly write:

  • learn more about how a democracy functions
  • get a better understanding of our political parties
  • make more informed decisions at the voting booth
  • gain more pride in our country; also understand its missteps and mistakes

Finally, as you generate ideas, remember that always, always, always it’s better to be specific and focused. For this particular essay topic, don’t write about university students in general. Center all your points and supporting ideas around university students in your particular country. If your country isn’t a democracy, for example, the supporting ideas above would make no sense.

Write. Rest. Correct Errors.

In addition to working on your typing and generating ideas, there will also be times when you practice writing on your own by … surprise! … actually writing something! When you do this, I recommend a three-step process of writing, resting, and error correction.

  • When you’re practicing for the TOEFL iBT, I think it’s best to follow the requirements of the specific writing task. For example, for the independent essay, you should give yourself exactly 30 minutes from start to finish. If possible, you should do a quick proofreading toward the end of your 30-minute writing time. More intensive error correction comes later.
  • Next I recommend that you set your writing aside for a while. I find that when I’m too “close” to my writing, I can’t read it objectively. And yet that’s what you need to do to correct it effectively. I recommend doing the error correction the following day.
  • Error correction basically involves trying to spot (and figure out how to fix) as many errors as possible in your written work. This is more than a quick proofread because you’re really going to focus on your written work and identify every single error you’ve made. Obviously, if you don’t know it’s an error, you won’t be able to spot it.

To catch more errors, read your work out loud. Scan each sentence carefully. Does it have a subject and verb? Do subjects agree with verbs? If there is a dependent clause (beginning with a subordinating conjunction like because, when, if), is there also an independent clause? Did you use the correct tense? Are you connecting sentences with commas (which is incorrect) rather than punctuating with semicolons or periods? Did you use the correct form of each word? Is there a better, more specific word you could have used instead?

Finally, once you’ve identified as many errors as you can, use a subsequent study time to focus on one specific area, whatever seems to be a particular weakness for you. Two websites that I recommend for grammar are:

Learn American English Online

English Grammar 101

For general help with writing, try:

Online Writing Lab (OWL) at Purdue University

The TOEFL integrated essay

During the TOEFL iBT, you will have two writing tasks. The second and longer task is the independent essay. The first is the integrated essay.

In my opinion, your writing skills are less important in the integrated essay; of more importance is your listening ability and, to a lesser extent, your reading ability. In the essay, you must make  clear connections between the points in the reading and the points in the lecture. Obviously, if you don’t understand what you hear in the lecture, this will be very difficult, which is why the integrated writing task is truly integrated. Without being able to integrate listening comprehension, reading, and writing skills, you will not obtain a high score.

Neither the reading nor the lecture in the integrated writing task is as difficult as the texts in the Reading section or the lectures in the Listening section. You will have ample time (three minutes) to identify the main points in the reading passage. Also, after the lecture, you will be able to view the reading passage until the end of the writing time. The lecture is short (about 2 to 2 ½ minutes) and clearly structured; in addition, since the content of the lecture relates directly to the reading you’ve just completed, it’s easier to understand.

Nevertheless, until your reading and listening skills are developed well enough for you to understand the three points of connection between the reading and the lecture, there’s little reason to put much effort into practicing the essay itself. It’s better to work on your writing skills by attempting the independent essay and continue practicing reading and listening skills separately. In fact, initially I recommend that rather than trying to write an integrated essay, you simply make tables of the main points (as I’ve described below) to see if you’ve identified them correctly.

A sample writing task

Let’s take a sample integrated writing task to discuss how to approach it.

The reading passage from TPO (TOEFL Practice Online) 33 is as follows. You would have three minutes to read this.

Carved stone balls are a curious type of artifact found at a number of locations in Scotland. They date from the late Neolithic period, around 4,000 years ago. They are round in shape; they were carved from several types of stone; most are about 70 mm in diameter; and many are ornamented to some degree. Archaeologists do not agree about their purpose and meaning, but there are several theories.　　

One theory is that the carved stone balls were weapons used in hunting or fighting. Some of the stone balls have been found with holes in them, and many have grooves on the surface. It is possible that a cord was strung through the holes or laid in the grooves around the ball. Holding the stone balls at the end of the cord would have allowed a person to swing it around or throw it.　

A second theory is that the carved stone balls were used as part of a primitive system of weights and measures. The fact that they are so nearly uniform in size — at 70 mm in diameter — suggests that the balls were interchangeable and represented some standard unit of measure. They could have been used as standard weights to measure quantities of grain or other food, or anything that needed to be measured by weight on a balance or scale for the purpose of trade.　　

A third theory is that the carved stone balls served a social purpose as opposed to a practical or utilitarian one. This view is supported by the fact that many stone balls have elaborate designs. The elaborate carving suggests that the stones may have marked the important social status of their owners.

After the reading, you will hear a lecture from a female professor:

None of the three theories presented in the reading passage are very convincing.

First, the stone balls as hunting weapons. Common Neolithic weapons such as arrowheads and hand axes generally show signs of wear, so we should expect that if the stone balls had been used as weapons for hunting or fighting, they too would show signs of that use. Marry of the stone balls would be cracked or have pieces broken off. However, the surfaces of the balls are generally well preserved, showing little or no wear or damage.

Second, the carved stone balls may be remarkably uniform in size, but their masses vary too considerably to have been used as uniform weights. This is because the stone balls were made of different types of stone including sandstone, green stone and quartzite. Each type of stone has a different density. Some types of stone are heavier than others, just as a handful of feathers weighs less than a handful of rocks. Two balls of the same size are different weights depending on the type of stone they are made of. Therefore, the balls could not have been used as a primitive weighing system.

Third, it’s unlikely that the main purpose of the balls was as some kind of social marker. A couple of facts are inconsistent with this theory. For one thing, while some of the balls are carved with intricate patterns, many others have markings that are extremely simple, too simple to make the balls look like status symbols. Furthermore, we know that in Neolithic Britain, when someone died, particularly a high-ranking person, they were usually buried with their possessions. However, none of the carved stone balls have been actually found in tombs or graves. That makes it unlikely that the balls were personal possessions that marked a person’s status within the community.

Notes on the reading and lecture

I suggest that you take notes using a table like the following:

In the top box, based on information in the introductory paragraph, you’ll make brief notes on the subject of the reading passage … just enough so that you remember what it’s about. You’ll be able to go back to the text after the lecture, so you don’t need to be very detailed here.

On the left-hand side of the table, you’ll write the three main points of the reading. You will find one key point and a few supporting details in each paragraph following the introduction. Remember, you’ll be going back to the text after the lecture. You’ll have another chance to read for details. During this three-minute reading time, what’s most important is that you clearly identify and understand the three main points. If you do this, you’ll be able to understand the lecture much better.

During the lecture, you’ll listen for the lecturer to respond to the three main points. Listen for phrases like first … second … third and first of all … secondly … finally; they will signal when the lecturer transitions from one point to another. You will only have one chance to listen to the lecture, so good notes (or a good memory) are essential here. If you miss any of the three key points in the lecture, you won’t be able to score higher than a 3 out of 5. Usually, the lecture includes at least two supporting details to support each point, and ideally you will include all of them in your notes and then in the essay itself.

The writing task

After you finish the lecture, you’ll have 20 minutes to write your essay of around 150 to 225 words. Although TOEFL study guides say that some lectures support or strengthen the information in the reading passage, this is highly unlikely. The TPOs, which are “retired” actual TOEFL tests, contain only tasks in which the lecturer challenges or disagrees with the reading passage.

Although the rater will definitely evaluate the quality of your writing, your ability to successfully describe the relationship between the ideas in the reading and the lecture for each of the three main points is key to getting a top score. Even William Shakespeare himself would not get a 5 unless he understood what he heard in the lecture. 🙂

In your essay, your emphasis should always be on the material that is in the lecture. The rater knows that the material in the reading is available to you while you’re writing; therefore, merely rephrasing what the text says will gain you little advantage.

Because the writing task is so standardized, test-takers tend to follow certain templates or formulaic language that they’ve encountered at test-preparation websites or courses. This is acceptable to a certain degree, but remember that if you’ve been taught to write in a certain way, thousands of other students have probably been taught the same way. Your rater will recognize these formulas instantly, and will be more impressed if you can avoid such a monotonous approach and write your essay with slightly more creativity and originality.

The first paragraph

Your first paragraph must contain three essential points, which you should be able to state in no more than two or possibly even just one sentence. The key information includes:

1) enough information about the topic so that a reader unfamiliar with it will understand it — you will identify the REAL thesis and restate it without using the exact same wording as the reading

2) what the author of the reading is doing (for example: offering some theories, suggesting some reasons, discussing some beliefs)

3) what the lecturer is doing (almost always refuting, disagreeing, or contradicting, but if you can be more specific, you should be)

Here are some examples of introductory paragraphs:

The salinity of California’s Salton Sea has been rising steadily in recent years. While the author suggests several solutions to reverse this trend, the lecturer believes these are unrealistic and impractical. (TPO 54)

The reading passage cites a number of social benefits resulting from high taxes placed on cigarettes and unhealthy foods. However, the lecturer challenges the arguments in favor of such taxes. (TPO 53)

Although the text suggests that colonizing asteroids might be a better option than sending people to the moon or to Mars, the lecturer disagrees. (TPO 52)

The reading discusses several beliefs that humans have developed about elephants. However, the lecturer believes that these ideas are misguided and reflect our misunderstandings about elephant behavior. (TPO 51)

When writing your essay, you’ll want to use a variety of reporting verbs to describe what the reading and the lecturer say. Avoid using the same verbs over and over again; also, try to make them precise and specific. Is the author claiming or merely suggesting? Is the lecturer pointing out or contradicting? My article on reporting verbs should provide you with lots of information to make these distinctions clearly.

However, rather than using variety, I think you should be consistent in how you refer to the reading and the lecture. If you choose to call it the reading, stay with that. Or call it the text or the author. In the same way, call the person giving the lecture either the speaker, the lecturer, or the professor and stick with that. You can also use the pronouns he or she; just make sure you get the gender correct.

Suggestions for the subsequent paragraphs

Some of my students tend to follow a very repetitious and monotonous structure: variations of The reading says this, but the lecture says this … The reading says this, but the lecture says this … The reading says this … and so on and so forth. I recommend that you vary this structure a little bit if you can. Here are three ways that you can do this. Some alternative word choices are included, but consult my article on reporting verbs for a more extensive list.

Although (while) the author states (believes, notes, suggests) that [a point from the text that you restate in your own words], the lecturer disagrees. She (he) points out that … [try to include two ideas from the lecture]

The lecturer refutes (disputes, rejects) the idea (theory, belief, suggestion) that [another point in the text]. She (he) claims (suggests, points out) that …. [try to include two points from the lecture].

The author asserts (contends, argues) that [another point from the text]. However (in contrast), the lecturer (disputes, contradicts, disagrees with) this (statement, idea, opinion). He (she) maintains (affirms, observes) that [two ideas from the lecture].

A sample essay

Finally, what does an integrated essay look like? Here’s my attempt at answering TPO 33.

Archaeologists have found round, carved stone balls dating from the late Neolithic period at several sites in Scotland. Although several theories about the meaning and purpose of these balls are discussed in the reading, the lecturer strongly disagrees with their validity.

First, although the reading states that the presence of holes and grooves in the balls indicates that they might have been used as some type of weapon, the lecturer refutes this idea. She points out that common weapons such as arrowheads found at these sites show signs of wear. If used as weapons, these balls would likely be cracked or broken. Their well-preserved surfaces contradict the theory that they were used as a weapon.

Second, the lecturer refutes the theory that the stones, which are uniform in size, could have been used in a primitive system of weights to measure grain or food. She notes that although interchangeable in size, the masses of the stones vary considerably. Because the balls are made from different types of stones, the balls have different densities, and thus different weights. So it would not have been possible to use them as a device for common measurement.

Third, the reading proposes that, due to their elaborately carved designs,  the stones might have had a social purpose and been used to mark the social status of their owners. The lecturer disagrees. She observes that although some stones have intricate patterns, others are quite plain. Furthermore, she points out that, in the Neolithic period, those people of higher status were buried with all their possessions. Yet no graves have been found with balls in them, making it unlikely that the balls were a marker of social status.

 

Reporting verbs

The English language offers a multitude of words that a writer can use to describe what something or someone says. These words are commonly called “reporting verbs.”

However, these verbs can have subtle shades of meaning and if you don’t use the right one, you risk misusing them … undercutting or distorting their meaning and maybe even confusing your reader.

It is also important to recognize how a particular verb is used in the context of the whole sentence. Usually, we follow the reporting verb with a direct object (for example, state the idea) or with a dependent clause (for example, state that dogs are intelligent animals). Sometimes, a particular verb requires a preposition (for example, object to). Study the examples I give below so you make sure you get this right.

For a task like the TOEFL integrated essay or a short academic paper, you don’t need to master a huge number of reporting verbs. Being able to confidently and correctly use a smaller group will be all you need to communicate effectively. In addition, you’ll also want to acquire a helpful number of nouns that are derived from these verbs.

In spoken English, we frequently use forms of say, talk about, or think. For example, my son says cats are more intelligent than dogs. This book is talking about animal intelligence. My daughter thinks dogs are more intelligent than cats.  In writing, however, you will want more variety and more precision.

♦    ♦    ♦    ♦

State has a very neutral and non-forceful meaning. We state facts. The author states that cats are more intelligent than dogs. A statement is something someone says. The university might issue a statement about a new policy. You might make a statement to the police if you witness a crime.

I’m fond of the word posit, which has the same meaning as the phrasal verbs put forward or set forth. This word implies that the person is stating something that they believe is true. The author posits that we should regard cats and dogs as intelligent beings.

Discuss is also a neutral word, but is usually used when someone is talking about a number of things, perhaps for a longer period of time. An author might discuss different kinds of intelligence. You might discuss your homework assignment with a friend. Your teacher might encourage a class discussion.

♦    ♦    ♦    ♦

Assert is a stronger word than state. The author asserts that neither cats nor dogs are very intelligent. Someone accused of a crime might assert their innocence. You make an assertion about something you strongly believe.

Other verbs that are very close in meaning to assert are maintain and affirm. The article maintains that humans are more intelligent than animals. The professor affirms the idea that there is more than one kind of intelligence.

♦    ♦    ♦    ♦

Argue is even more forceful than assert. The author argues that his cat is more intelligent than many humans. In an argument, people are having a disagreement. So to argue implies that there is a counter-argument even though it is not necessarily stated explicitly.

Another verb that is very close in meaning to argue is contend. It also implies a more argumentative stance. The author contends that it is impossible to measure intelligence accurately. If you disagree frequently with a friend, you might try to avoid points of contention  … those issues that you argue about. If you are always fighting about the same thing, we idiomatically call that issue a bone of contention (probably from the image of two dogs fighting over the same bone).

Debate can be used if we are explicitly referring to two or more parties; thus, although it is quite formal, it can be used in the TOEFL integrated writing task where an author and speaker take contrasting positions. The author and speaker debate whether life exists on Mars. The authenticity of the artifact is debated by the author and the speaker. The author and speaker debate the significance of the evidence provided by the animal researchers.

♦    ♦    ♦    ♦

Other useful reporting verbs with different shades of meaning include:

Claim. When you claim something, it may or may not be true. The author claims there is life on Mars. He makes a claim about the existence of life on Mars. You generally don’t make a claim about something that’s absolutely certain; you believe it’s true, but others might not. In other words, you don’t claim that there are 24 hours in a day.

Believe. This verb also implies that you may not have facts to prove your belief. If the author believes that dogs are more intelligent than cats, this suggests that others may not believe this.

Suggest. Suggesting something is not very forceful. It implies there are alternate possibilities. The evidence suggests that there may be water on Mars. You normally follow suggest with a modal verb form. He suggests there might be several solutions to the problem. She suggests that they could approach the issue from a different point of view. You make or offer a suggestion.

Propose. This is very similar to suggest but it’s a bit more formal. The author proposes that further research might be necessary to determine the validity of the analysis.

Recommend. This is similar to suggest and propose, but I think it’s stronger and implies that a judgment has been made and a preference indicated. You could suggest or propose several different solutions, for example, but you are likely to recommend one particular solution.

Imply. This is even less forceful than suggest. You imply something without actually saying it directly. You make an implication. Figuring out what an author implies is a popular type of question on many reading tests. We sometimes say that you have to “read between the lines” to determine what the author is implying.

Note, point out, or observe. These are useful, fairly neutral verbs that could be used to describe an observation the author has made or a fact that they have noted. These verbs wouldn’t be used to describe stating a position or making a claim. The author notes that cats generally live longer than dogs. He points out that many cats live over 15 years. He also observes that human beings become very attached to their pets. He makes an observation.

Illustrate. You illustrate something with an example or illustration. The author illustrates his idea that dogs are more intelligent than cats by telling a story about his German Shepherd and his cat. You can also provide or offer an example or illustration.

Hypothesize/theorize. These verbs are especially helpful in the TOEFL iBT integrated writing task, in which the reading often presents theories that the lecturer disputes. What’s the difference between them? For scientists, a theory is well-tested and backed by evidence (such as the theory of evolution), while a hypothesis is merely a possible suggested explanation or outcome. The integrated writing task generally doesn’t make this distinction, and theory and theorize are more frequently used even though hypothesis and hypothesize would probably be more appropriate. This may be because theory and theorize are more common and recognizable for test-takers; in addition, hypothesize is harder to spell and the plural of hypothesis is tricky … it’s hypotheses, not hypothesises. However, this is just my hypothesis 🙂

Speculate. If you want a variation on hypothesize/theorize that is less scientific, speculate is a great word that basically means the same thing. Although the reading speculates that cats may be trained to solve simply problems, the lecturer disagrees.

♦    ♦    ♦    ♦

Now that we’ve covered synonyms for saying things, how do we deal with someone’s counterarguments? What if someone disagrees with the author?

I guess human beings are argumentative by nature, because there are lots and lots of words to express these ideas! What you need to be careful about, when you’re writing, is making sure you include a direct object (if needed) and the proper preposition (if required).

Disagree is one of the few verbs that doesn’t need a direct object. You can simply disagree. The author states that dogs are more intelligent than cats, but the professor disagrees. He disagrees with that statement.

Object (notice that when pronouncing this verb, you put the stress on the second syllable, ob-JECT) can also be used without a direct object (pronounced OB-ject). While the author states that dogs are less intelligent than cats, the professor objects. He objects to this idea. However, the author disagrees with this objection.

Verbs of disagreement that must have a direct object include contradict, dispute, oppose, rebut, reject, and refute. They should not be followed immediately by a dependent clause (for example, that cats are more intelligent). If you want to use a dependent clause, you must have it modifying a noun (such as fact, statement, assertion, belief, or idea) that serves as the direct object.

The professor contradicts the claim that cats are more intelligent.

The professor contradicts.

The professor contradicts that cats are more intelligent.

The lecturer disputes the author’s statement.

The writer opposes his assertion.

The author rebuts the idea that cats and dogs have equal intelligence.

The scientist rejects the belief that intelligence in animals can be measured accurately.

The text refutes the finding that cats are more affectionate than dogs.

Cast doubt on is a very popular phrase my students use for TOEFL integrated writing, but I am not a big fan. Not only do I rarely see this used in print but it is also weaker than the preceding verbs. Doubt is similar to question. When you doubt or question something, to me it implies that you might change your mind, whereas the lecturers in the TOEFL integrated writing section are usually more forceful in their opinions! They are more likely to disagree with, refute, rebut, contradict, or oppose an idea in the reading passage, rather than simply doubt it. 🙂

Criticize is another possible verb of disagreement. I think criticize connotes a more personal and direct confrontation. You might criticize a decision or a policy.

♦    ♦    ♦    ♦

Finally, what if an author actually agrees with something?

As with disagree, agree doesn’t require a direct object. You can agree. Or you can agree with something or someone. You can also concur, or concur with an author.

Corroborate means not only to agree, but usually to provide additional support. The professor corroborates the point in the text by noting that many experiments have proved that cats are very intelligent.

Concede, on the other hand, implies that you have given in after having previously held a different viewpoint. It suggests a certain reluctance in accepting a statement or position. The author concedes that cats are intelligent, but points out that more research should be performed to ascertain their exact degree of intelligence.

♦    ♦    ♦    ♦

Believe it or not, there are many more reporting verbs in the English language. But I believe these are enough words for most students and test-takers to accurately describe what a particular author or lecturer is saying, as well as to compare and contrast different points of view.

And if you’re not sure exactly how to use reporting verbs in your writing, this article may help.

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Hilary Miller @ 2016
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