Reporting verbs

The English language offers a multitude of words that a writer can use to describe what something or someone says. These words are commonly called “reporting verbs.”

However, these verbs can have subtle shades of meaning and if you don’t use the right one, you risk misusing them … undercutting or distorting their meaning and maybe even confusing your reader.

It is also important to recognize how a particular verb is used in the context of the whole sentence. Usually, we follow the reporting verb with a direct object (for example, state the idea) or with a dependent clause (for example, state that dogs are intelligent animals). Sometimes, a particular verb requires a preposition (for example, object to). Study the examples I give below so you make sure you get this right.

For a task like the TOEFL integrated essay or a short academic paper, you don’t need to master a huge number of reporting verbs. Being able to confidently and correctly use a smaller group will be all you need to communicate effectively. In addition, you’ll also want to acquire a helpful number of nouns that are derived from these verbs.

In spoken English, we frequently use forms of say, talk about, or think. For example, my son says cats are more intelligent than dogs. This book is talking about animal intelligence. My daughter thinks dogs are more intelligent than cats.  In writing, however, you will want more variety and more precision.

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State has a very neutral and non-forceful meaning. We state facts. The author states that cats are more intelligent than dogs. A statement is something someone says. The university might issue a statement about a new policy. You might make a statement to the police if you witness a crime.

I’m fond of the word posit, which has the same meaning as the phrasal verbs put forward or set forth. This word implies that the person is stating something that they believe is true. The author posits that we should regard cats and dogs as intelligent beings.

Discuss is also a neutral word, but is usually used when someone is talking about a number of things, perhaps for a longer period of time. An author might discuss different kinds of intelligence. You might discuss your homework assignment with a friend. Your teacher might encourage a class discussion.

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Assert is a stronger word than state. The author asserts that neither cats nor dogs are very intelligent. Someone accused of a crime might assert their innocence. You make an assertion about something you strongly believe.

Other verbs that are very close in meaning to assert are maintain and affirm. The article maintains that humans are more intelligent than animals. The professor affirms the idea that there is more than one kind of intelligence.

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Argue is even more forceful than assert. The author argues that his cat is more intelligent than many humans. In an argument, people are having a disagreement. So to argue implies that there is a counter-argument even though it is not necessarily stated explicitly.

Another verb that is very close in meaning to argue is contend. It also implies a more argumentative stance. The author contends that it is impossible to measure intelligence accurately. If you disagree frequently with a friend, you might try to avoid points of contention  … those issues that you argue about. If you are always fighting about the same thing, we idiomatically call that issue a bone of contention (probably from the image of two dogs fighting over the same bone).

Debate can be used if we are explicitly referring to two or more parties; thus, although it is quite formal, it can be used in the TOEFL integrated writing task where an author and speaker take contrasting positions. The author and speaker debate whether life exists on Mars. The authenticity of the artifact is debated by the author and the speaker. The author and speaker debate the significance of the evidence provided by the animal researchers.

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Other useful reporting verbs with different shades of meaning include:

Claim. When you claim something, it may or may not be true. The author claims there is life on Mars. He makes a claim about the existence of life on Mars. You generally don’t make a claim about something that’s absolutely certain; you believe it’s true, but others might not. In other words, you don’t claim that there are 24 hours in a day.

Believe. This verb also implies that you may not have facts to prove your belief. If the author believes that dogs are more intelligent than cats, this suggests that others may not believe this.

Suggest. Suggesting something is not very forceful. It implies there are alternate possibilities. The evidence suggests that there may be water on Mars. You normally follow suggest with a modal verb form. He suggests there might be several solutions to the problem. She suggests that they could approach the issue from a different point of view. You make or offer a suggestion.

Propose. This is very similar to suggest but it’s a bit more formal. The author proposes that further research might be necessary to determine the validity of the analysis.

Recommend. This is similar to suggest and propose, but I think it’s stronger and implies that a judgment has been made and a preference indicated. You could suggest or propose several different solutions, for example, but you are likely to recommend one particular solution.

Imply. This is even less forceful than suggest. You imply something without actually saying it directly. You make an implication. Figuring out what an author implies is a popular type of question on many reading tests. We sometimes say that you have to “read between the lines” to determine what the author is implying.

Note, point out, or observe. These are useful, fairly neutral verbs that could be used to describe an observation the author has made or a fact that they have noted. These verbs wouldn’t be used to describe stating a position or making a claim. The author notes that cats generally live longer than dogs. He points out that many cats live over 15 years. He also observes that human beings become very attached to their pets. He makes an observation.

Illustrate. You illustrate something with an example or illustration. The author illustrates his idea that dogs are more intelligent than cats by telling a story about his German Shepherd and his cat. You can also provide or offer an example or illustration.

Hypothesize/theorize. These verbs are especially helpful in the TOEFL iBT integrated writing task, in which the reading often presents theories that the lecturer disputes. What’s the difference between them? For scientists, a theory is well-tested and backed by evidence (such as the theory of evolution), while a hypothesis is merely a possible suggested explanation or outcome. The integrated writing task generally doesn’t make this distinction, and theory and theorize are more frequently used even though hypothesis and hypothesize would probably be more appropriate. This may be because theory and theorize are more common and recognizable for test-takers; in addition, hypothesize is harder to spell and the plural of hypothesis is tricky … it’s hypotheses, not hypothesises. However, this is just my hypothesis 🙂

Speculate. If you want a variation on hypothesize/theorize that is less scientific, speculate is a great word that basically means the same thing. Although the reading speculates that cats may be trained to solve simply problems, the lecturer disagrees.

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Now that we’ve covered synonyms for saying things, how do we deal with someone’s counterarguments? What if someone disagrees with the author?

I guess human beings are argumentative by nature, because there are lots and lots of words to express these ideas! What you need to be careful about, when you’re writing, is making sure you include a direct object (if needed) and the proper preposition (if required).

Disagree is one of the few verbs that doesn’t need a direct object. You can simply disagree. The author states that dogs are more intelligent than cats, but the professor disagrees. He disagrees with that statement.

Object (notice that when pronouncing this verb, you put the stress on the second syllable, ob-JECT) can also be used without a direct object (pronounced OB-ject). While the author states that dogs are less intelligent than cats, the professor objects. He objects to this idea. However, the author disagrees with this objection.

Verbs of disagreement that must have a direct object include contradict, dispute, oppose, rebut, reject, and refute. They should not be followed immediately by a dependent clause (for example, that cats are more intelligent). If you want to use a dependent clause, you must have it modifying a noun (such as fact, statement, assertion, belief, or idea) that serves as the direct object.

The professor contradicts the claim that cats are more intelligent.

The professor contradicts.

The professor contradicts that cats are more intelligent.

The lecturer disputes the author’s statement.

The writer opposes his assertion.

The author rebuts the idea that cats and dogs have equal intelligence.

The scientist rejects the belief that intelligence in animals can be measured accurately.

The text refutes the finding that cats are more affectionate than dogs.

Cast doubt on is a very popular phrase my students use for TOEFL integrated writing, but I am not a big fan. Not only do I rarely see this used in print but it is also weaker than the preceding verbs. Doubt is similar to question. When you doubt or question something, to me it implies that you might change your mind, whereas the lecturers in the TOEFL integrated writing section are usually more forceful in their opinions! They are more likely to disagree with, refute, rebut, contradict, or oppose an idea in the reading passage, rather than simply doubt it. 🙂

Criticize is another possible verb of disagreement. I think criticize connotes a more personal and direct confrontation. You might criticize a decision or a policy.

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Finally, what if an author actually agrees with something?

As with disagree, agree doesn’t require a direct object. You can agree. Or you can agree with something or someone. You can also concur, or concur with an author.

Corroborate means not only to agree, but usually to provide additional support. The professor corroborates the point in the text by noting that many experiments have proved that cats are very intelligent.

Concede, on the other hand, implies that you have given in after having previously held a different viewpoint. It suggests a certain reluctance in accepting a statement or position. The author concedes that cats are intelligent, but points out that more research should be performed to ascertain their exact degree of intelligence.

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Believe it or not, there are many more reporting verbs in the English language. But I believe these are enough words for most students and test-takers to accurately describe what a particular author or lecturer is saying, as well as to compare and contrast different points of view.

And if you’re not sure exactly how to use reporting verbs in your writing, this article may help.